Mongol Invasion in Java: A Turning Point of Java History

What if the Mongols had never invaded Java? Perhaps Majapahit would never have been founded, and Javanese civilization would be completely different from what we know today. In Java, the Mongol invasion is known as the Tartar or Tatar invasion. It was launched to conquer Java and avenge Kublai Khan after Kertanegara tattooed the face of his envoy, Meng Qi. Instead of defeating Singasari, the Mongols lost thousands of soldiers and unintentionally helped Raden Wijaya rise as the successor to the fallen Singasari, founding a new civilization: Majapahit.

Kublai Khan, the grandson of Genghis Khan, was known for his interest in cultures around the world and for his connection with Marco Polo. He founded the Yuan Dynasty after completing the conquest of China begun by Genghis Khan, successfully unifying China under Mongol rule and controlling the Silk Road that linked Asia, the Middle East, and Europe. However, he also sought to dominate the spice trade routes and subjugate Kertanegara, the king of Singasari.

The Mongols were known as a nomadic nation who mastered the land conquests. However, their invasions into maritime regions, such as Java, often ended in failure. Kublai Khan had repeatedly sent naval fleets to other Asian countries to expand his empire, including to Japan, Vietnam, Champa (Cambodia), and Java. At Takashima Island, the Mongol fleet was sunk by a massive typhoon; the Java expedition was likewise a disaster.

Before the Mongol fleet arrived in Java, Marco Polo sailed to Nusantara in 1285 and recorded the commodities traded there, such as pepper, nutmeg, galangal, cubeb, and cloves. Many merchants visited Java in search of spices and resulting in huge profits. In East Java, Tuban (Ta-pan) produced the second-best pepper after Sunda.

In 1289 Kublai Khan sent Meng Qi to demand recognition of Yuan authority from the Singasari Kingdom and to monopolize trade in its territory. At that time, Kertanegara had expanded his power to Malay, Bali, Pahang, Gurun, Bakulapura, Sunda, Madura, and the entire regions of Java. All of these regions were rich in spices and had trade potential. Like Kublai Khan, Kertanegara was known for his ambition to conquer.

Kertanegara was not pleased when Meng Qi arrived with the demands. Instead, he injured Meng Qi’s face. When Meng Qi returned with his scratched face, Kublai Khan was offended. This humiliation had to be avenged. The conflict between Kertanegara and Kublai Khan attracted international attention. Marco Polo even noted that only one king in the region refused to obey or pay tribute to any other ruler. Kublai believed that conquering Java would compel other kingdoms to follow suit.

Over three years, Kublai gathered forces at Quanzhou (Zayton): 1,000 ships, 20,000 soldiers, food supplies, and 1,000 kilograms of silver to purchase supplies during the expedition. In 1293, Kublai Khan launched his Java expedition, led by Shi-pi, a veteran of the Song conquest. The land forces were commanded by Kao Xing, and the navy forces were commanded by a Uyghur commander named Ikh-Musu. This was one of the most extraordinary missions in Mongol history since they faced an unfamiliar climate and the longest voyage they had ever attempted. Java was their farthest maritime expedition as well.

At the time of the Mongol arrivals in Java, Kertanagara also faced a rebellion from Jayakatwang. The royal court had warned Kertanegara about a potential attack by Jayakatwang. However, Kertanegara ignored these warnings because he believed that Jayakatwang—his cousin and brother-in-law—would not betray him. However, Jayakatwang held a deep grudge against Singasari because Singasari destroyed his ancestors’ kingdom: Kediri.  Jayakatwang aimed to overthrow Singasari and restore Kediri’s glory.

Jayakatwang launched his attack while most of Singasari’s army was sent to Sumatra on the Pamalayu Expedition, which aimed to expand Singasari’s territory and unite Nusantara against the Mongol threat. Jayakatwang launched his assault when the capital of Singasari was poorly guarded. His rebellion was successful. Kertanagara, the last king of Singasari, was killed during the attack. Eventually, Jayakatwang restored the Kingdom of Kediri.

As the Mongol forces approached Java, they first landed at Tuban. From there, the army split—one took the land route, the other the sea route. The naval troops sailed from Tuban to a small river named Bajie (now the Surabaya River) through the Rong Yalu port. Kertanagara had misjudged the situation, thinking he had more time to prepare. He expected the Mongols to move from the southern coast and even requested reinforcements from Champa (Cambodia) and Malaya to intercept the Mongol fleet. On the other hand, Shi-pi made the 4,000 km journey and landed in Java without resistance since Kertanegara was already dead and his troops were busy fighting in the south against Jayakatwang’s rebellion. 

After Kertanegara’s death, Shi-pi was trapped in the local political conflict. Raden Wijaya, Kertanegara’s son-in-law, approached Shi-pi and asked for help to defeat Jayakatwang. Wijaya promised to surrender and offer generous gifts to the Mongols if they helped him defeat Kediri. Shi-pi agreed. Mongol forces attacked the regions marked by Wijaya. About 5,000 Kediri soldiers were killed and Jayakatwang was executed. Kediri fell to the Mongols.

Following the victory, Wijaya requested 200 unarmed Mongol troops led by two officers to accompany him. He said he wanted to hand over the promised gifts. Unsuspectingly, the Mongol forces agreed and sent troops with bare hands. Along the way, Wijaya’s forces ambushed and massacred the unarmed Mongol troops. Shi-pi fled and the Mongol army retreated to the coast, eventually returning home in defeat. This betrayal cost the Mongols 3,000 soldiers, a tenth of their total force. However, they returned with some war loot.

Kublai Khan was not pleased by the defeat. He punished most of the commanders, though he later forgave them. With both Singasari and Kediri collapse, Raden Wijaya founded the Kingdom of Majapahit, which later became the greatest empire in the Javanese history. The Mongols, who had come to conquer Singasari, ended up acting as mercenaries in a civil war and unintentionally enabled a new ruler to unite the archipelago.

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